Decision Making and Reasoning Essay Example for Free

Decision Making and Reasoning Essay There are different types of decisions that we must make as well. From simple choices when planning for a vacation or making more life changing choices that require a detailed, logical analysis concerning what to do. Questions about strategy use have been treated in several different lines of decision-making. Largely, a distinction arises in terms of when and why deliberative processing best describes decision-making behavior. Under novel decision-making conditions, there is no prior experience to guide the decision-making process. The process involves selecting the appropriate strategy. Under repetitive successful decision-making conditions, there is a long history of experience. Some decisions become automatic in the sense that they require no deliberation. In this process, we address the issue of how decision processes transit from more controlled or deliberative strategies, to simple decision rules, and finally to automatic or routine strategies. What one sees as rational behavior in many of the social situations that have been studied is likely to depend on whether one conceives of rationality as enlightened self-interest in a fairly narrow sense, or one factors in the roles of such variables as self-image and conscience, or one allows for the possibility that a rational person might take a genuine interest in the welfare of other people, independently of his or her own. In other words, what is perceived as a dilemma from one perspective may not be a dilemma as perceived from another; a decision problem that is very difficult when assessed relative to one set of values may be very easy when assessed relative to another set. Dilemmas are difficult decision problems, necessitating, as they often do, choices between equally unsatisfactory (or in some cases equally attractive) options. Some social dilemmas pit self-interest against the common good. What constitutes rational behavior in dealing with dilemmas has been a question of interest to many theorists and students of human reasoning. Certain prototypical situations—notably various versions of the prisoners dilemma have been intensively studied with the hope of gaining insights into the determinants of competitive and cooperative behavior. However, along the way, we may use simple rules to decide when and where to stop and which specific routes to take, depending on incidental factors such as traffic. It is important to understand how these various decision domains are differently perceived and processed. (Betsch et al, 2004, p1) Strategies That Guide Human Decision Making A strategy is used to refer to processes which are relatively slow, goal-directed, systematic, and under explicit conscious control. However, it is also argued that to reason deductively rather than inductively does require a conscious effort at deduction and only occurs in response to specific instructions. Thus deduction is seen as a strategy. An account of strategic deductive reasoning with the mental models framework is preferred. (DYdewalle et al, 2000, p1) The strategic phases of decision making are the generation phase, the evaluation phase, and the learning phase. In a very rough sense, these phases correspond to the periods before, during, and after one makes a decision, respectively. Hence, they can be viewed as three successive points in time, but there is a great deal of recursion that can occur between phases. (Klein et al, 2001, p31) The tendency to implement appropriate behaviors strategies is apparent by the number of techniques available. For example, vigilant problem solving found that most executives report that they engage in one of a number of simplistic strategies for arriving at a solution. These simplistic strategies of simple decision rules are grouped them into cognitive categories. The cognitive decision rules: 1. Unreflectively using a standard operating procedure, 2. Accepting the first alternative that comes to mind that is good enough to meet the minimal requirements (satisfying), 3. Searching ones mind for a well-known analogy that turns out to be inappropriate (analogizing), 4. Consolidating the choice discovered through rules (1) to (3) and bolstering it in ones mind by focusing mainly on the positive features of the choice, 5. Saving time and effort by getting someone who has looked into the issues to provide a brief description of what one should do and why (the nutshell briefing rule). (Byrnes, 1998, p21) For example in a case study format, Suppose that a student already possesses some automatic but dysfunctional strategies for making the decisions the instructor seeks to have make well. Then, before the training effort can begin in earnest, those â€Å"bad habits† have to be eliminated. This will be a prodigious task because, by their nature, the already established strategies will initiate themselves effortlessly, uncontrollably, and beyond the trainees consciousness. Because decision making is such a fundamental human activity, which each of us has practiced day-in and day-out all our lives, perhaps the majority of our decision strategies are automated. This means that it is folly to think that it is even possible to fundamentally change a persons basic decision-making dispositions. (Klein et al, 2001, p25) Managerial leadership is generally considered a major factor in organizational behavior because of its putative effect on individuals, groups, and organizational outcomes. Some regard leadership as a special case of social influence. But progress has been very slow in understanding why leaders exert influence in certain situations while not in others. Research has not produced particularly robust and reliable findings in this regard.

English Immersion Programs: Who is Targeted? Essay -- Essays Papers

English Immersion Programs: Who is Targeted? The topic of immigrant students entering not only our country but our public school systems, is slowly becoming a bigger and bigger controversy within the United States. Students are coming in from all over the world and entering our English-speaking school system without a word of English in their vocabulary. When they are thrown into the melting pot of today’s pubic schools, their presence affects so many more people than one would think. My belief that English immersion should replace bilingual programs can be correlated with three main groups all taking opposing stances on my argument. The three primarily affected groups are the immigrant students themselves, today’s workforce, and the bilingual education teachers. These three groups, all things considered, all take different approaches to the abolishment of bilingualism. Students would most likely agree with English immersion so that they can adapt better and sooner, while teachers would most likely disagree because their entire curriculum and teaching style would be subject to drastic changes. While these two groups are extreme opposites, today’s workforce serves to go either way. The three groups: students, the workforce and bilingual education teachers, serve as representatives for the many sides of the controversial changing of bilingual education in today’s high schools. Students are without a doubt, the most affected group within the bilingual education controversy. They are the children who are entering a new environment at one of the most crucial time in their lives. They need to learn the academics to help them succeed in the future, but how can they learn anything if they don’t even speak English? Fo... ...English immersion programs. There are perhaps thousands of groups that are and will be affected by bilingual education now and in the future. However, three main groups are affected more directly than most. Their correlation with the bilingual education controversy makes their standpoint on English immersion very biased. Students, today’s workforce, and bilingual teachers take very different sides when the education debate is considered. These three groups represent different sides of the growing controversy over the replacement of bilingual education with English immersion education in the United States. Works Cited: Valdà ©s, Guadalupe. Learning and Not Learning English. New York: Teachers College Press, 2001. Valdez, Elsa O. â€Å"Winning the Battle, Losing the War: Bilingual Teachers and Post-Proposition 227.† The Urban Review 33 (2001): 237-53.

English Teacher

Name______________________________________ Date ______________________Block__ Subject-Verb Agreement – Exercise 1 Circle the correct verb in each sentence below. In the line next to the sentence write down the rule# it applies to. 1. Emily and Greg (comes,   come) to my house every Friday for lunch. Rule#_____ 2. There (is,   are) time to watch the movie. Rule#_____ 3. My friends who are in the band (wants,   want) me to play a musical instrument. Rule#_____ 4. My father or my brothers (is,   are) coming with me to the ball game. Rule#_____ 5. Everyone (needs, need) time to relax. Rule#_____ . That bag of oranges (looks, look) fresh. Rule#_____ 7. The lacrosse team (hopes, hope) to win the tournament next week. Rule#_____ 8. Your trousers (needs, need) to be cleaned. Rule#_____ 9. Some of the books on the shelf (is, are) dusty. Rule#_____ 10. Even though the students like the class, a few (thinks, think) that it is too complicated Rule#_____ ———â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- Top of Form Name______________________________________ Date ______________________Block__ Subject-Verb Agreement – Exercise 2 Circle the correct verb in each sentence below.In the line next to the sentence write down the rule# it applies to. 1. Mumps (is, are) not common among adults. Rule#_____ 2. Viruses from third world countries (is, are) a major concern. Rule#_____ 3. Most of the sand (is, are)   wet from the high tide. Rule#_____ 4. Either the two kittens or the puppy (sits, sit) in my lap while I watch television. Rule#_____ 5. A subject of great interest (is, are) rainforests. Rule#_____ 6. Hansel and Gretel (is, are) a famous children's story. Rule#_____ 7. The team members (is, are) arguing over the defense tactics. Rule#_____ 8. The economics of the trip (was, were) pleasing.Rule#_____ 9. Why (is, are) your parents going to Africa for a vacation? Rule#_____ 10. The mayor and the governor (hopes, hope) that the bill will soon become a law Rule#_____ Name______________________________________ Date ______________________Block__ Subject-Verb Agreement – Exercise 3 Circle the correct verb in each sentence below. In the line next to the sentence write down the rule# it applies to. ————————————————- Top of Form 1. The books from the library (need   needs) to be returned by Friday. Rule#_____ 2. The parents and the child often (watch  Ã‚   watches)   Disney movies. Rule#_____ 3.The phone that belongs to the two friends (have   has) finally run out of minutes. Rule#_____ 4. That pair of trousers (look   looks) good on you. Rule#_____ 5. Either Matilda or her brothers (use   uses) the symphony tickets each week. Rule#_____ 6. The crowd (were was) cheering wildly for Tom. Rule#_____ 7. The politics of this campaign (seemà ‚   seems) very complicated. Rule#_____ 8. Everyone at the company's headquarters (know   knows) the code to the safe. Rule#_____ 9. Gulliver's Travels (are   is)   one of my favorite books. Rule#_____ 10. Measles (cause   causes) a good deal of itching. Rule#_____ Bottom of Form Bottom of Form

Is There a Binding Contract between Mary and Ruby Free Essay Example, 1250 words

In Partridge v Crittenden, an advertisement had been placed in a magazine by the defendant. It stated that there were bramble finches for sale. The sale of these birds was an offence under the provisions of Section 6 of the Protection of Birds Act 1954. Thereafter, the defendant was convicted for this offence, which he appealed. The appellate court set aside the conviction, on the grounds that the advertisement was nothing more than an invitation to treat, and not an offer. Similarly, in our problem, Mary had placed an advertisement in a magazine, regarding the sale of the antique bakery cutters. This advertisement was merely an invitation to treat, as per the ruling in the above case. Consequently, the advertisement placed by Mary does not constitute an offer. Nevertheless, when the advertisement can be construed to contain an offer, any individual who accepts it will be entitled to a claim. This was the ruling in Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company. In Warlow v Harrison, the adv ertisement stated that an auction would be held without reserve. The court held that these terms of the auctioneer constituted an independent personal offer to the highest bidder in the auction. We will write a custom essay sample on Is There a Binding Contract between Mary and Ruby or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page